Diabetes Diseases and Control of Diabetes

Diabetes is Low or Not production of Insulin Hormone in the Human body. So Insulin is essential Hormone for produce energy from glucose. Therefore reduce insulin content of body; blood glucose content is rapidly increased. It is called diabetes.

When we consider diabetes in the world, there are 247 million peoples having diabetes today in the world. Normally we should test blood glucose levels in regularly. Then we can control diabetes if increase or decrease blood glucose level. When we cheek regularly blood glucose level we can understand immediately blood glucose level is high or low.

The blood glucose is change with our meals. We consider the normal range of blood glucose levels, 70 - 130 mg/dl before meals and below 180 mg/dl in 1- 2 hours after meals. A Blood glucose level is 90 - 130 mg/dl at least 8 hours after fasting.  So good method of cheek blood grouse level is cheek after 8 - 10 hours fasting, it calls Fasting Blood Sager (FBS).

Hemophilia – Rare Bleeding Disorder

This is come to the children from there Parents through genes. So Hemophilia is a genetic disease. In the normal person, when Injury blood was clotting in short time but Hemophilia Person bleed long time and Not clotting in short time. This is rare bleeding disorder and blood does not clot normally. 

Normally chromosomes pairs come from parents and Females have 2 X chromosomes and Males have X chromosomes and Y chromosomes. Clotting factor come with X chromosomes.

Then also can bleed in side of body tissues like knees, ankles, elbows etc and this can damage some organs and tissues. To the blood clotting need clotting factor. This clotting factor is protein and Hemophilia person have little or No clotting factor. There are two types of hemophilia. They are Hemophilia A (Classic hemophilia and Factor VIII deficiency) and Hemophilia B (Christmas disease and Factor IX deficiency)

HIV - Human Immunodeficiency Virus

This HI Virus has different structure from the other retroviruses. It has composed of 2 copies of positive single stranded RNA. This single stranded RNA is tightly bound to Nucleocapsid proteins. This virus has unique life cycle and it binds to the host cells. The virus attaches with cell membrane RNA and Enzymes in the cytoplasm. HIV contain Enzyme called reverse transcriptase and this enzyme allows to single stranded RNA of virus to copied and double stranded DNA to generate.

This HI Virus is mainly to the human immune system and very dangerous virus because it course to the immunity of the human body. HIV is mainly transmission each other with body fluids likes Bloods, Semen, Pre seminal fluids, Vaginal fluids, Brest milk and Rectal mucous. But other body fluids like faces, Nasal fluid, Saliva, Sweat, tears, urine and Vomit are do not help to transmit HI virus.

There are many ways to transmitted blood fluid with each other and If some one infected with HIV they transmitted to each other. Then HIV mainly Transmitted with sexual contact like anal, Oral or virginal sex with partner. If one person infected with HIV it transmitted to other. Then child birth is other way to transmitted HIV. When child is birth of HIV can transmit with mother and child and after birth some time HIV transmitted through the Brest milk. Then it can be transmitted through the inject drugs with each other shearing needles or drugs that are contaminated with the HI virus. Some time HIV can be transmitted with the bloods transmitted to patios.

Down Syndrome - Genatical Deasese

Down Syndrome is a genetic. Decease and It is a congenital disorder. Most people have 23 pairs of (46 chromosomes) in there cell. But down syndrome people have extra chromosome in 21 th Par of chromosome. so there are 47 total number of chromosomes. This extra chromosomes is effect to Development of Peoples body.

When we Consider about Down syndrome children,

1. Down syndrome children are developed slower than other children
2. They have some health Problems
3. Eyes are almond shaped
4. Nose is flat
5. They have large tongue
6. Head and hands are Smaller
7. They have wide feet with Short toes
8. Tone Muscles are poor
9. More flexible joints with compare to Normal children

Some down syndrome children have more signs of above and other have few of those. Then Down syndrome appearing about one of every 800 births.

This Down syndrome chilled needs supportive and Preventive medical care to mange there life conditions. If we give good care to down syndrome chilled they can build up there life as normal child. Some child are educated and complete there degree and they build up cheerful life. So we should maintain good physical and Social condition of Down syndrome chilled.

Introduction about Chromosome in Cells

Chromosomes can be found in nucleus of the each living cells. That controls all the function of the cell and other control materials. The Fundamental material of chromosomes is DNA. This DNA Molecules are packaged as thread like structure and that is tightly coiled around the Proteins. This coiled like structure support to make the chromosomes structure and it is called Histones. Chromosomes are Microscopic material and can be found in cell Nucleus.

When we consider more about the Chromosomes, They have Constriction point called Centromere. Which is point that divided chromosomes to two parts called "arms". The Short arm of the chromosomes is called “P arm" and Longs arm of the chromosomes is called “Q arm"

Chromosomes are leads to Maintain characters of the cells and other all cell factions. As an example, when we consider about Human Cells Nucleus. There are 46 chromosomes and they contain as pairs so that have 23 pairs of chromosomes. All 22 Pairs of chromosomes are same in both females and Males and this 22 pairs if chromosomes are called Autosomes and lead all faction except sex characters. Other chromosomes (23 rd pair of chromosome) are different between males and Females. Female’s chromosomes fair have two copies of X chromosome and Males chromosomes fair have X chromosome and Y chromosome.

Introduction of Living Cells

Structural Building units of plant and Animals are called Cells. They are fundamental building blokes of life. Amount of cell are very from the type of organisms as Single cell organisms like Bacteria, malty cellular structure like Tissue, organ and Organism like plant and animals.

Cells are mostly small structure and composed with water and out of structure made by phospholipids by layer membrane. This layer is allowing to go inside and go outside to some component this is called semi permeable. Because not allow to go and come out all things. Only Permit to go some component.

Cell element contain 59% of Hydrogen (H), 24% of Oxygen (O), 11% of Carbon (C), 4 % of nitrogen and 2 % of other like prosperous (P), Sulphur (S) etc. The Cells have 90% of fluid called cytoplasm. Cytoplasm consists of Protein, Carbohydrates, fats, Free Amino acid and number of other elements. The cell Environment consists of Cytoplasm and Nucleus like DNA, RNA. This Cell environment affects Gene Expression and Gene Regulation.

DNA Viruses (Double Standard)

DNA Viruses Conceptually, the simplest viruses to understand are those with genomes of double stranded DNA (dsDNA). The nucleocapsid of this type of virus enters the cell it proceeds to the nucleus where it mimics the genome of the host cell. Usually, viral genome is replicated using the host cell DNA polymerase and viral genome is transcribed by the host cell RNA polymerase. Resulting transcripts carrying information encoding viral proteins is then transported to the cytoplasm and seen as template by the host cell Ribosomes. Some of these newly synthesized viral proteins are used as the protein capsid around newly replicated viral DNA molecules and these new virions are released from the cell, where they target other host cells and trigger new rounds of infection

Double Standard DNA viruses that exploit the host cell machinery to complete their life cycles can carry small genomes encoding mostly viral structural proteins like those for the capsid. The dependence of these viruses on the host cell replication machinery creates a potentially awkward situation; the enzymes of DNA replication are generally not expressed in quiescent cells.  Most of the cells infected will be in G and therefore inhospitable hosts. Some dsDNA viruses are herpes virus family or the Epstein Barr virus has large genomes that contain greater than sixty genes

The Strategies of Virus Replication

 Life cycle of most viruses is designed to maximize the production of progeny virus particles in the cells. Case of many animal viruses, the time elapsed from infection to the generation of the first progeny ranges form several hours to a day. Burden of producing a large number of virus particles causes the infected cell to die. This lysis of the host cell is called the viral lytic cycle and is an immediate and inevitable consequence of viral reproduction

In the other viruses will refrain from killing the host cell. They can establish a long term infection of the cell which cell releases a steady stream of viral particles over an extended period of time. If this continuous production of virus particles does not compromise the health of the host cell and it can live on indefinitely devoting some of its resources to making virus

Details of a viral replication cycle are dictated by the type of nucleic acid carried into the host cell by the infecting virion. Most DNA viruses enter the nucleus where they parasitize of host cell's DNA replication apparatus. There are exceptions notably the smallpox DNA virus encodes its own DNA replication machinery and thus remains in the cytoplasm. Most RNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm because the enzymes used to replicate viral RNA are virally encoded

Plus ss RNA Retroviruses in Living cells

In this viruses are lipid containing viruses whose genomes can act as mRNA.  Most notorious of these is HIV and this viruses resulting in AIDS.  Aside from HIV retroviruses are rather uncommon in humans, but prevalent in other mammals and birds.  Genomes of retroviruses are similar in structure and size to picornaviruses like polio virus and one might suppose that the replicative strategy of a retrovirus resembles that of poliovirus. Life cycle of a retrovirus is unique and unusual

Plus strand of RNA is not associated with ribosomes, It has all the attributes of mRNA.  Instead and virion RNA is used as a template to make a DNA copy of the viral genome.  Copying of RNA into DNA is foreign for the host cell and must be carried out by a viral enzyme that is packaged in virion 

The viral enzyme, called reverse transcriptase carries out this process. Terms reverse and retro imply a mechanism that is the opposite of that normally operating in all cells usual flow of information in a cell is from DNA to RNA is not from RNA to DNA. Initial product of reverse transcription is an RNA and DNA hybrid double helix

RNA portion of this hybrid is degraded and reverse transcriptase copies the remaining DNA strand into dsDNA. Processes take place in the cytoplasm. The viral dsDNA is synthesized, it is transported into the nucleus where it is inserted and covalently linked to Host chromosomal DNA. Viral DNA that is integrated into the host genome is called a provirus and it is indistinguishable from the host cell genes. The retrovirus has created a version of the viral genome that has all the attributes of a cellular gene found in the host.  The integrated provirus can be transcribed by the host cell into (+) RNA that is transported to the cytoplasm and used either as mRNA in viral protein synthesis or as the genome for new progeny viruses

Ecology of Poliovirus (Compared to Influenza Virus)

When we Consider about Ecology of Poliovirus, the (+) ssRNA genome of poliovirus, a single long RNA molecule, is unable to recombine with (+) ssRNA genomes from other related picornaviruses by the process of crossing-over. Crossing over requires a set of highly specialized enzymes that are not available to the viruses. This means that there are only a very small number of closely related poliovirus strains and immunity against one of these strains confers immunity against the others. Influenza virus presents a dramatically contrasting example.  Influenza virus genome is composed of different RNAs, each carrying different genes

There are two different types of flu virus simultaneously infect a single host cell, two viral genomes may recombine by simply exchanging RNAs.  Progeny virion released from this cell can have RNAs from each different infecting virus and thus a new and unique strain has been created.  This is devastating consequences on human health

Natural reservoir for many flu viruses is the shore bird population around the world, which includes migratory ducks and geese.  At least a dozen distinct strains of flu virus live continually in these birds.  In rural China and other parts of the world, ducks and pigs are kept in close proximity with one another and with humans.  Ducks become infected with a flu virus originating in the wild shore birds.  They can then pass the virus to a pig, which is also readily infected by human flu viruses.  In the infected cells of the pig, the two viral genomes can mix and RNAs from both viruses can be packaged into one virion.  In this way, a new recombinant flu virus, one quite different from pre existing strains may emerge and infect humans

Exposed humans would have not experienced this strain before, and thus there is no immunity to it.  Flu virus now spreads throughout the population creating a worldwide epidemic.  These pandemics create serious respiratory infections, but usually prove lethal to only a few, mostly the weak and elderly

Consider about Ecology of Retroviruses

When we Consider about Ecology of Retroviruses have peculiar ecology. Retroviruses genomes can become integrated into the host cell chromosome.  Once integrated, the viral genome (pro virus) may be transcribed or it may stay dormant and unsubscribed.  If dormant, the retrovirus can exist undetected for a long time

Retroviruses have serious implications for HIV infections. HIV pro virus can integrate into the chromosome of a host white blood cell (lymphocyte) and remain undetected for years.  Only when that lymphocyte is stimulated by some physiological signal will transcription of the pro virus be activated.  Suddenly then, virus particles can burst from the cell and infect other nearby cells.  This dormant state, termed viral latency, means that it is difficult, indeed virtually impossible, to eradicate an HIV infection from the body.  Retroviruses can be many cells that harbor silent pro viruses; each is indistinguishable from a normal uninfected cells.

The Phospolipid Bilayer

The Phospolipid BIlayer is aqueous environment inside and outside a cell prevents membrane lipids from escaping from the bilayer but nothing stops these molecules from moving about and changing places with one another within the plane of the bilayer. The membrane therefore behaves as a two dimensional fluid which is crucial for membrane function. Membranes consist largely of a lipid bilayer which is a double wall of phospoholipid, cholesterol and glycolipid molecules containing chains of fatty acids. Lipids give cell membranes a fluid character with a consistency approaching that of light oil. The fatty acid chains allow many small, fat soluble molecules such as oxygen to permeate the membrane, but they repel large water soluble molecules, such as sugar and electrically charged ions such as calcium

The top and bottom layers of the membrane have their stems facing each other. Proteins can stretch through the top bottom or both layers of phospolipid bilayer. Embedded in the lipid bilayer are large proteins many of which transport ions and water soluble molecules across the membrane. Some proteins in the plasma membrane form open pores called membrane channels which allow the free diffusion of ions into and out of the cell. Others bind to specific molecules on one side of membrane and in a process that is not clearly understood transport the molecules to the other side. Sometimes one protein simultaneously transports two types of molecules in opposite directions. Most plasma membranes are about 50 percent protein by weight while the membranes of some metabolically active organelles are 75 percent
                     
Phospolipid bilayer has 5 reasons for making it possible for the cell membrane to perform its job. Used to join cells together in cell adhesion Attach the membrane to the cytoskeleton Proteins gather together as enzymes and carry out different steps of metabolic reactions that take place near the cell membrane

Glycoproteins and Glycolipids in Animal and Plant Cells

The Glycolipids are located mainly in the plasma membrane and they are found only in the noncytosolic half of the bilayer. Their sugar groups therefore are exposed on the exterior of the cell where they form part of the protective coat of carbohydrate that surrounds most animal cells. This protective coat is the glycocalyx. Glycolipid molecules acquire their sugar groups in the Golgi apparatus.

Enzymes that add the sugar groups are confined to the inside of the Golgi apparatus so that the sugars are added to lipid molecules in the non cytosolic half of the lipid bilayer. Once a glycolipid molecule has been created in this way it remains trapped in this monolayer. as there are no flippases to transfer the glycolipid to the cytosolic side of the membrane.

There are Two broad types of glycolipids can be distinguished,

1. Glycerol Based

• Fatty acid chains attached to the glycerol molecule.
• A carbohydrate group linked to the 3rd carbon of glycerol with no bridging phosphate group
• Glycerol based glycolipids are the primary form in plants and bacteria

2. Sphingolipid Based

• These are based on the addition of carbohydrate units to the sphingolipid nucleus This type of glycolipid is the main form in animal cell membranes
• Simple glycolipids formed by the addition of a single sugar unit are called cerebrosides
• Addition of straight or branched sugar chains producesgangliosides. Carbohydrates added can be have considerablevariation in structure

Composition and Functions of Cell membranes

The Plasma membranes are made of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates

Lipids
Barrier separating the interior of the cell from its environment. Also act as a barrier between the solutions inside the cell separating contents of an organelle from the cell cytoplasm. For example: nucleus is surrounded by two layers of membranes that are actually extensions of the membrane surrounding the cell.  These nuclear membranes keep the DNA inside of the nucleus

Lipid molecules are called PHOSOPHOLIPIDS that made of fatty acids, glycerol, phosphate and hydrophilic organic derivative. Amphipathic one end of molecule is hydrophobic and the other side is hydrophillic) Fluid with the degree of un saturation of fatty acids determining the fluidity Barrier to polar molecules Basis for the cell signaling system

Proteins
The proteins within the plasma membrane are the functional part of the membrane allowing for transport of materials through the membrane AND sending and receiving signals to and from other cells

Basically these proteins can act as, pumps, gates, receptors, energy transducers and enzymes OR receptors for the endocytosis of material and cell cell signaling. The proteins associated with the outside surface of the lipid by layer are called EXTRINSIC PROTEINS. These can be easily removed

The proteins that are embedded in the membrane are called INTRINSIC PROTEINS. They can only remove with detergents that disrupt the cell membrane. Integral proteins also have a hydrophobic portion that spans the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bi layer. Some of these inner proteins also have INTEGRINS their job is to connect the outside proteins to the cytoskeleton inside the cell

Carbohydrates
Modify the lipid and protein molecules

CELL MEMBRANE (Plasma Membrne)

Cell membrane is possibly the most important organell in the cell. It holds the cell together  keeping everything intact. It is mobile and moves along paths that membranes follow. It is composed of a phosolipid bilayer

Basic Definition cell membrane
The cell membrane is the thin layer that forms the outer boundary of a living cell or of an internal cell compartment The outer boundary is the plasma membrane and compartments enclosed by internal membranes are called organelles. Cell membranes have a dual function
 (1) they both separate important but incompatible processes conducted in the organelles and keep toxic substances out of the cell
(2) they allow specific nutrients, wastes and metabolic products to pass between organelles and between the cell and the outside environment

Main Functions of cell membrane
•    Holds cell together
•    Controls whats goes out of cell
•    Controls what comes into cell
•    Manains homeostasis

The Endomembrane system

The Endomembrane system are consist of,

•    plasma membrane
•    nuclear envelope
•    endoplasmic reticulum
•    Golgi apparatus or Golgi bodies
•    vesicles
•    vaculoles
•    lysosomes

The membrane of all of these is composed of two layers of phospholipids with embedded proteins. Membrane has a consistency of a light oil allowing its membranes to diffuse throughout. Autogenous hypothesis states that the endomembrane system evolved from invagination of the plasma membrane

Double Helix DNA and Pentose Sugars

Double Helix DNA

DNA is double stranded helical model for DNA is shown in the graphic on the left. The easiest way to visualize DNA is as an immensely long rope ladder, twisted into a cork screw shape. Sides of the ladder are alternating sequences of deoxyribose and phosphate while the rungs of the ladder are made in two parts with each part firmly attached to the side of the ladder. Parts in the rung are heterocyclic amines held in position by hydrogen bonding. Then most DNA exists as open ended double helices, some bacterial DNA has been found as a cyclic helix. Some time DNA has also been found as a single strand.

Pentose Sugars in DNA
In nucleic acids two types of pentose sugars can be found. This difference is reflected in their names deoxyribonucleic acid indicates the presence of deoxyribose and ribonucleic acid indicates the presence of ribose

These sugars in the graphic on the left, the structures of both ribose and deoxyribose are shown. Note the red OH on one and the red H on the other are the only differences. The alpha and beta designations are interchangeable and are not a significant difference between these tow types

DNA Forensic and Testing

There are two main types of forensic DNA testing. RFLP and PCR based testing, although these terms are not very descriptive. Generally, RFLP testing requires larger amounts of DNA and the DNA must be underrated. Crime scene evidence that is old or that is present in small amounts is often unsuitable for RFLP testing. Warm moist conditions may accelerate DNA degradation rendering it unsuitable for RFLP in a relatively short period of time

PCR based testing often requires less DNA than RFLP testing and the DNA may be partially degraded, more so than is the case with RFLP. However, PCR still has sample size and degradation limitations that sometimes may be under appreciated. PCR based tests are also extremely sensitive to contaminating DNA at the crime scene and within the test laboratory. During PCR, contaminants may be amplified up to a billion times their original concentration. Contamination can influence PCR results, particularly in the absence of proper handling techniques and proper controls for contamination. PCR is less direct and somewhat more prone to error than RFLP. However, PCR has tended to replace RFLP in forensic testing primarily because PCR based tests are faster and more sensitive.

Structure and Replication of DNA

Bio Coach Module of DNA is designed to help you understand DNA structure and replication. As to solve problems, this will be reviewing the chemical structure of DNA and the process of DNA replication. Animations and interactive activities will enrich your review experience in a dynamic way. This module is designed to be a supplement to, but not a replacement for, your textbook and classroom notes. You can test your understanding of DNA structure and replication by using the Self Quiz at the end of the module

Importance of Protein to Cells

Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a globular form. The amino acids in a polymer are joined together by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however, in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine and in certain archaic pyrrolysine. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in a protein are often chemically modified by post-translational modification, which alters the physical and chemical properties, folding, stability, activity, and ultimately, the function of the proteins. Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function and they often associate to form stable complexes. Of the most distinguishing features of polypeptides is their ability to fold into a global state, or "structure". The extent to which proteins fold into a defined structure varies widely. Data supports that some protein structures fold into a highly rigid structure with small fluctuations and are therefore considered to be single structure. Other proteins have been shown to undergo large rearrangements from one conformation to another. This conformational change is often associated with a signaling event. Thus, the structure of a protein serves a medium through which to regulate either the function of a protein or activity of an enzyme. Not all proteins requiring a folding process in order to function as some function in an unfolded state

Biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as acting and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape. Other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. Proteins are also necessary in animals' diets, since animals cannot synthesize all the amino acids they need and must obtain essential amino acids from food

Proteins may be purified from other cellular components using a variety of techniques such as ultracentrifugation, precipitation, electrophoresis, and chromatography; the advent of genetic engineering has made possible a number of methods to facilitate purification. Methods commonly used to study protein structure and function includes immunohistochemistry, site directed mutagenesis, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry