DNA and RNA in Animal and Plant Cells

Actually 2 main types of nucleic substances are can be found within cell nuclei that process information. DNA is the basic form within chromosomes that is hard coded into every cell. RNA is a more temporary form that is used to process subsequences of DNA messages. RNA is an intermediate form used to execute the portions of DNA that a cell is using. For example, in the synthesis of proteins, DNA is copied to RNA, which is then used to create proteins DNA->RNA->Proteins. The structure of DNA and RNA are very similar. They are both ordered sequences of 4 types of substances, ACGT for DNA and ACGU for RNA. Thus RNA uses the same three ACG substances, but uses U (uracil) instead of T (thymine). The molecules uracil and thymine are only slightly different chemically. In DNA, there is pairing between AT and CG and in RNA, the pairings are AU and CG, but since RNA is not double-stranded, this pairing is much rarer. Hence, RNA has the 4 substances,

    1    A adenosine
    2    C cytosine
    3    G guanine
    4    U uracil

DNA is created from RNA, and this is done by faithfully copying the sequence of base pairs, with the only change converting T to U. Hence, an RNA copy of a DNA sequence encodes the identical information, though it uses a slightly different set of 4 substances. The differences between DNA and RNA are also many. The underlying sugar molecule that traps the 4 bases are different is deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA. DNA is two strands wrapped in a double-helix, but RNA is a single strand.

Chromosomes in Animal and Plant Cells

There are 6 billion odd base pairs are split amongst 46 chromosomes. This Each person gets 2 pairs of chromosomes, In 23 from each parent, to total 46 chromosomes per human cell. A chromosome is the largest form of a DNA molecule, with a large sequence of DNA codes, of differing lengths, usually hundreds of millions of base pairs in each chromosome. Chromosomes are independent molecules of DNA, with the typical double-helix, a start and end, but no cycles. Chromosomes are physically large enough to be seen on high power microscopes and these are very small.

DNA Analysis and Gene Cloning

The known world wide as the standard introductory text to this important and exciting area, the fifth edition of Gene Cloning and DNA Analysis addresses new and growing areas of research whilst retaining the philosophy of the previous editions. Assuming the reader has little prior knowledge of the subject its importance, the principles of the techniques used and their applications are all carefully laid out, with over 250 clearly presented two color illustrations

In addition to a number of informative changes to the text throughout the book, the final four chapters have been significantly updated and extended to reflect the striking advances made in recent years in the applications of gene cloning and DNA analysis in biotechnology

Extended chapter on agriculture including new material on glyphosate resistant plants
New section on the uses of gene cloning and PCR in archaeology Coverage of ethical concerns relating to pharming, gene therapy and GM crops

Then Gene Cloning and DNA Analysis remains an essential introductory text to a wide range of biological sciences students, including genetics and genomics, molecular biology, biochemistry, immunology and applied biology. It is also a perfect introductory text for any professional needing to learn the basics of the subject. All libraries in universities where medical, life and biological sciences are studied and taught should have copies available on their shelves

Collagen in the Cells

The Collagen are found in tendons and other connective ligaments. Collagen have a triple helix as the major structure. Keratin structure is described more fully in the next section. The main differences in various keratins arise from their sulfur content. If there are many cysteine disulfide cross-links, then there is very little flexibility as in horns, claws, hooves, or nails. In wool, skin, and muscle proteins, there are fewer disulphide cross links which allow some stretching but returns to normal upon relaxation of tension.

Quaternary structure of collagen consists of three left handed helices twisted into a right handed coil. This structure is shown in the graphic on the left. Basic properties of collagen are rigidity and resistance to stretching. The helices are grouped in a variety of more complex fiber type structures. A rigid pattern of inter chain amide carbonyl hydrogen bonding is best accommodated by a primary amino acid sequence of,

-gly-X-pro- or -gly-X-hypro

X is any amino acid and hypro is hydroxyproline. In the graphic on the left X = arginine. Molecular model studies show that this sequence works the best for the triple helix structure. Glycine is needed because it is small and is the only amino acid which can fit in the interior of the triple helix

DNA Contraction in Bio Organism

DNA library is a collection of one organisms DNA fragments that are stored with in a host organism. DNA construct is an artificially constructed segment of nucleic acid that is going to be transplanted into target cell DNA library; the long strands of chromosomal DNA are cut into thousands of fragments. Each fragment is stored and replicated in a separate host organism, such as a bacterium. It often contains DNA insert, which contains the gene sequence encoding a protein of interest that has been sub cloned into vector, which contains bacterial resistance genes for growth of bacteria and promoters for expression in the organism. For example for the construction of human DNA library, the long strands of chromosomal DNA are cut into thousands of pieces or fragments.

Each fragment is stores and replicated in separate host organisms such as bacterium .Bacteria can quickly replicate the DNA to produce detectable quantities. DNA construct may express wild type protein, prevent the expression of certain genes by expressing competitors or inhibitors or express mutant proteins, such as deleting mutations. DNA construct is often used inn molecular biology to analysis macromolecules such as proteins. When a gene is identified and copied, it is known as cloned. Genes are sequences of DNA code for the synthesis of one or more types of RNA molecules used to make proteins.

Bio informatics in Cell Biology

Bioinformatics involved the manipulation, searching and data mining of DNA sequence data. The development of techniques to store and search DNA sequences have to lead to widely applied advances in computer science, especially string searching algorithm, machine learning and database theory.

The biological data must be combined to comprehensive picture of activities. Field of bioinformatics has evolved such that most pressing task involves the analysis.

What about Protein and Importance of Protein

In the animal and plants Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a globular form. The amino acids in a polymer are joined together by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids; however, in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine and in certain archaea pyrrolysine. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in a protein are often chemically modified by post-translational modification, which alters the physical and chemical properties, folding, stability, activity, and ultimately, the function of the proteins. Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable complexes of the most distinguishing features of polypeptides is their ability to fold into a globule state, or (structure). The extent to which proteins fold into a defined structure varies widely. Data supports that some protein structures fold into a highly rigid structure with small fluctuations and are therefore considered to be single structure. Other proteins have been shown to undergo large rearrangements from one conformation to another. This conformational change is often associated with a signaling event. Structure of a protein serves a medium through which to regulate either the function of a protein or activity of an enzyme. Not all proteins requiring a folding process in order to function as some function in an unfolded state

Biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape. Other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. Proteins are also necessary in animals' diets, since animals cannot synthesize all the amino acids they need and must obtain essential amino acids from food. Through the process of digestion, animals break down ingested protein into free amino acids that are then used in metabolism. Proteins were first described by the Dutch chemist Gerhardus Johannes Mulder and named by the Swedish chemist Jons Jakob Berzelius in 1838. Early nutritional scientists such as the German Carl von Voit believed that protein was the most important nutrient for maintaining the structure of the body, because it was generally believed that "flesh makes flesh. The central role of proteins as enzymes in living organisms was however not fully appreciated until 1926, when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was in fact a protein. The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger, who won the Nobel Prize for this achievement in 1958. The first protein structures to be solved were hemoglobin and myoglobin, by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew, respectively, in 1958.The three dimensional structures of both proteins were first determined by x-ray diffraction analysis; Perutz and Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for these discoveries. Proteins may be purified from other cellular components using a variety of techniques such as ultracentrifugation, precipitation, electrophoresis, and chromatography; the advent of genetic engineering has made possible a number of methods to facilitate purification. Methods commonly used to study protein structure and function includes immune history chemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry.

What about Protein Biosynthesis and Methods of Protein Biosynthesis

Biosynthesis of protein is the process in which cells build proteins. The term is sometimes used to refer only to protein translation but more often it refers to a multi step process, beginning with amino acid synthesis and transcription of nuclear DNA into messenger RNA, which is then used as input to translation.

Cistron DNA is transcribed into a variety of RNA intermediates. The last version is used as a template in synthesis of a polypeptide chain. Proteins can often be synthesized directly from genes by translating mRNA. When a protein needs to be available on short notice or in large quantities, a protein precursor is produced. A proprotein is an inactive protein containing one or more inhibitory peptides that can be activated when the inhibitory sequence is removed by proteolysis during posttranslational modification. A preprotein is a form that contains a signal sequence that specifies its insertion into or through membranes. Preproproteins have both sequences (inhibitory and signal) still present.For synthesis of protein, a succession of tRNA molecules charged with appropriate amino acids have to be brought together with an mRNA molecule and matched up by base-pairing through their anti codons with each of its successive codons. The amino acids then have to be linked together to extend the growing protein chain, and the tRNAs, relieved of their burdens, have to be released. This whole complex of processes is carried out by a giant multi molecular machine, the ribosome, formed of two main chains of RNA, called ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and more than 50 different proteins. This molecular juggernaut latches onto the end of an mRNA molecule and then trundles along it, capturing loaded tRNA molecules and stitching together the amino acids they carry to form a new protein chain.Protein biosynthesis, although very similar, is different for prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic Acid )

DNA is the genetic material found in the cells of all living organisms. DNA is the fundamental building blocks for life. Nearly every cell  in a person's body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).The information in DNA is made up of four bases which combine to form chains. These bases include two purines (Adenine and Guanine) and two pyrimidines (Cytosine and Thymine). These are commonly referred to as A, G, C and T respectively. Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. It is the order, or sequence, of these bases which determines genetic characteristics
 

Then each of the base is attached to a Sugar (S) molecule and a Phosphate (P) molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder's rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.The number of purine bases in DNA is equal to the number of pyrimidines. This is due to the law of complimentary base pairing; which is Thymine (T) can only pair with Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) can only pair with Cytosine (C). we should Knowing this rule, we could predict the base sequence of one DNA strand if we knew the sequence of bases in the complimentary strand

Chromosome in the cells

Chromosome is the Cell material that maintain and Controls Bio characters of the cells. When a cell is getting ready to divide creating two daughter cells, it packs its DNA into bundles called chromosomes. Chromosomes are just bundles of DNA. For humans, there are consistently 23 pairs of chromosomes, each with a consistent size and shape. Chromosomes are numbered. Chromosome number 1 is the largest chromosome, chromosome number 2 a little smaller and so on. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes there is a pair called the sex chromosomes. This is something of a misnomer, since there are many functions on the "sex" chromosomes that have nothing to do with sex. In females, the sex chromosome pair consists of two similar size chromosomes called X chromosomes. Males have one X and one small Y chromosome

Proteomics and Bioinformatics of living Organism

Total complement of proteins present at a time in a cell or cell type is known as its proteome and the study of such large scale data sets defines the field of proteomics, named by analogy to the related field of genomics. Key experimental techniques in proteomics include 2D electrophoresis, which allows the separation of a large number of proteins, mass spectrometry, which allows rapid high throughput identification of proteins and sequencing of peptides (most often after in-gel digestion), protein micro arrays, which allow the detection of the relative levels of a large number of proteins present in a cell, and two hybrid screening, which allows the systematic exploration of protein protein interactions.  The total complement of biologically possible such interactions is known as the interactome. A systematic attempt to determine the structures of proteins representing every possible fold is known as structural genomics

large amount of genomic and proteomic data available for a variety of organisms, including the human genome, allows researchers to efficiently identify homologous proteins in distantly related organisms by sequence alignment. Sequence profiling tools can perform more specific sequence manipulations such as restriction enzyme maps, open reading frame analyses for nucleotide sequences, and secondary structure prediction. From this data phylogenetic trees can be constructed and evolutionary hypotheses developed using special software like Clustal Wregarding the ancestry of modern organisms and the genes they express. The field of bioinformatics seeks to assemble, annotate, and analyze genomic and proteomic data, applying computational techniques to biological problems such as gene finding and cladistics

Genetic Code of DNA and RNA

Genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences) is translated into proteins  (amino acid sequences) by living cells. The code defines a mapping between tri nucleotide  sequences, called codons, and amino acids. With some exceptions,  a triplet codon in a nucleic acid sequence specifies a single amino acid. Because the vast majority of genes are encoded with exactly the same code (see the RNA codon table), this particular code is often referred to as the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code, though in fact there are many variant codes. For example, protein synthesis in human mitochondria  relies on a genetic code that differs from the standard genetic code

Then Not all genetic information is stored using the genetic code. All organisms DNA contains regulatory sequences, intergenic segments, and chromosomal structural areas that can contribute greatly to phenotype. Those elements operate under sets of rules that are distinct from the codon-to-amino acid paradigm underlying the genetic code

Heterocyclic Amines in Cells

The Heterocyclic amines are sometimes called nitrogen bases or simply bases. The heterocyclic amines are derived from two root structures like  purines or pyrimidines. The purine root has both a six and a five member ring; the pyrimidine has a single six member ring.There are two major purines, adenine (A) and guanine (G), and three major pyrimidines, cytosine (C), uracil (U), and thymine (T). The structures are shown in the graphic on the left. As you can see, these structures are called "bases" because the amine groups as part of the ring or as a side chain have a basic property in water

Major difference between DNA and RNA is that DNA contains thymine, but not uracil, while RNA contains uracil but not thymine. The other three heterocyclic amines, adenine, guanine, and cytosine are found in both DNA and RNA. For convenience, you may remember, the list of heterocyclic amines in DNA by the words: The Amazing Gene Code (TAGC)

Pentose Sugars in living cells

In Living cell flasum There are two types of pentose sugars found in nucleic acids. This difference is reflected in their names deoxyribonucleic acid indicates the presence of deoxyribose,  while ribonucleic acid indicates the presence of ribose

Then In the graphic on the left, the structures of both ribose and deoxyribose are shown. Note the red  “ OH “on one and the red  “ H ” on the other are the only differences. The alpha and beta designations are interchangeable and are not a significant difference between the two